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The U.S. maritime industry is facing many new regulatory and legislative challenges--all of which are affecting the operating climates of the nation's federal and state maritime academies. The seven maritime academies are facing increased funding needs while upgrading their curricula to reflect, and stay ahead of, such issues and challenges as: (a) intermodal transportation trends; (b) the upgrading of maritime technology; (c) new operational conditions created by the International Maritime Organization's Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (IMO/STCW'95); (d) legislation such as The Freedom to Transport Act of 1998 (which died in committee) and the current Excellence in Military Service Act; and (e) new problems created by the continued shrinking of the U.S.-flag merchant fleet. The unique qualities of each campus add additional priorities and challenges. Equally diverse are the backgrounds and points of view of the superintendent or president at the helm of each school.

Clyde J. Hart Jr., the administrator of the Maritime Administration (MARAD), reminded attendees at a 15 October 1998 Joint Academies Luncheon (hosted by the Kings Point Club of Washington, D.C.) that the United States "is a sea power. We are an island nation," he said, "and we must remain so." He emphasized his own commitment: (1) to make sure the United States always has the sealift capabilities need both in war and peace; and (2) "to ensure that the United States Merchant Marine Academy [USMMA] and--to the extent I can influence [the result]--the state academies turn out the finest maritime leaders possible."

Earlier (on 15 September 1998), testifying before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on the now-dead Freedom to Transport Act of 1998, Hart presented undeniable statistics about the economic value of, and national-defense imperative for, a strong U.S. maritime industry. Domestic waterborne shipping in the United States, he said by way of example, "provides an estimated 124,000 direct jobs that produce $1.7 billion in federal and state tax revenue on wages and corporate income, and generates $10 billion in annual freight revenue."

The shrinking U.S.-flag fleet is made up, at the top level, of only 286 self-propelled oceangoing ships such as tankers and breakbulk carriers, according to the 1997 MARAD Annual Report. But Hart testified that there are "over 41,000 U.S.-flag vessels" operating in the "Jones Act" (i.e., domestic) trades. Those vessels, most of which are much smaller than the oceangoing ships, represent "some $26 billion in private U.S. investment and carry over 1 billion tons of commercial cargo annually," Hart said. The current debate over U.S. cabotage laws, he continued, "is not solely an issue of economics and transportation. The U.S. ownership and build requirements for participation in coastwise trade are also critical to national security. By serving commercial interests during peacetime, American shipbuilders and ship repairers are able to ensure that a domestic shipbuilding base is in place during times of national emergency."

The Merchant Marine Act of 1936 directed the creation and maintenance of a Merchant Marine adequate to support the nation's international and domestic commerce and to meet U.S. national-defense needs. The seven maritime academies graduate almost all of the men and women who join the U.S. Merchant Marine as 3rd mates or 3rd engineers. In fact, "the six state academies produce two out of every three licensed U.S. Merchant Marine officers," said Rear Adm. David C. Brown, president of the State University of New York (SUNY) Maritime College, oldest of the academies.

Decades of History And Regional Characteristics

Many of the maritime academies have been graduating licensed mariners for decades--but SUNY has been doing so for more than a century--since 1874, when it was started as the New York Nautical School. The USS St. Mary functioned as the original school. In 1938, the New York State Maritime Academy moved to its present location at Fort Schuyler, and in 1948 became one of the original SUNY campuses; the school's name was changed to SUNY Maritime College in 1949. MARAD recently designated SUNY as a Regional Maritime Academy--that status allows students from any of the Mid-Atlantic states to attend at in-state tuition rates.

The nation's youngest maritime school is the Great Lakes Maritime Academy (GLMA), which opened in 1969 and is partnered with Northwestern Michigan College for its associate degrees and with Ferris State University for its bachelor of science degrees. As the only freshwater academy, GLMA trains men and women primarily for U.S. Coast Guard-licensed officer positions aboard Great Lakes commercial bulk carriers--the "ore boats" that ply the Lakes in support of the regional and national economy. The youngest school also is the smallest--enrollment is currently limited to 50 recruits each year; that total is based on projections by the largest Great Lakes Fleet operators that there will be a need for approximately 35 new officers each year to fill jobs aboard their vessels. GLMA will graduate its 700th student this year.

California Maritime Academy (CMA) began in 1929 as the California Nautical School and officially became CMA in 1938 (in response to the Merchant Marine Act of 1936). CMA moved to its current location (Vallejo) in the early 1940s, and in 1995 became the 22nd campus of the California State University system. The change in status also brought about addition of the school's first major--Facilities Engineering Technology--not to require a U.S. Coast Guard license. CMA recognizes that shoreside positions are a viable option for students, explained CMA President Jerry Aspland. Beginning in Fall 1999 the Business degree also will not require a license. CMA was the first state academy to admit women students, the first of which matriculated in 1973.

USMMA, dedicated in 1943, was the first of the nation's federal academies to admit women (one year after CMA). The enrollment of minorities has remained consistent at USMMA over the years, but Rear Adm. Joseph D. Stewart, USMS, the school's superintendent, said that he "would like to do better. We want more women and more minority students learning about the opportunities that USMMA offers, and to join the regiment."

Maine Maritime Academy, created by a 1941 act of the Maine legislature, recently increased the number of women enrolled and currently has more than 100 women on board. Leonard H. Tyler, president, attributed the increase in female enrollment to "curiosity about science and mathematics by these [women], as well as [their] aspirations for careers in technology." Maine alumna Capt. Deborah Doane Dempsey, who in 1976 became the first woman to graduate from any federal or state maritime or service academy, is also the first woman to hold an unlimited master's license to command a cargo ship on international voyages.

Today's U.S.-flag Merchant Marine is obviously not the same fleet it was following World War II. Neither are the mariners the same as their WWII forebears. Rear Adm. Maurice J. Bresnahan Jr., USN (Ret.), president of Massachusetts Maritime Academy, provided a brief description of the maritime academies, their graduates, and the role the graduates play in the U.S. Merchant Marine that puts today's Merchant Marine in historical perspective:

"We mix the old traditions of celestial navigation and marlinespike seamanship with GPS [global positioning system], intermodal transportation, and cycloidal propulsion systems to teach present-day mariners the most efficient ways to safely move cargoes around the globe. Skilled in laptops, sextants, leadership, and spreadsheets, graduates of maritime academies have a college degree, [at least] six months at sea, a professional license, and a myriad of certificates, plus self-discipline and motivational skills honed in a structured regimental community. They know how to take orders, build a team, and give orders. In short, they represent a concentration of nautical knowledge, interpersonal skills, and strength of character that the maritime industry finds extremely attractive."

The Industry's New Face

Intermodalism is not a new concept--it has expanded significantly in recent years, though, in response to the perceived need for infrastructure systems and equipment that facilitate the "seamless" transfer of cargo from one mode of transportation (trucks or rail cars, for example) to another (ships or aircraft). The seven maritime academies have "moved with the future" by creating new business, logistics, and transportation courses, and modifying others. In the 1980s CMA added mechanical engineering and business administration to its degree program, and evolved its nautical degree major into a more comprehensive marine transportation degree. Facilities engineering technology was added as a major in 1995. CMA is currently working on a logistics major; marine safety may be added in the future, according to Aspland.

The newest major at Maine Maritime--International Business and Logistics--is one initiative that Tyler said was prompted by "continued diversification of the academy's program, from one that solely prepared men and women as ship operators, to one that recognizes that shipping is just one part of an entire logistics and transportation system."

Beginning in August, GLMA cadets will be able to earn a bachelor of science degree in Global Logistics or International Business through Ferris State. Bresnahan said that Massachusetts Maritime plans to establish a new major, International Marine Business, in recognition of "the exploding opportunities in worldwide shipping." Massachusetts Maritime also has responded to increased concerns about the environment by expanding its Facilities and Plant Engineering major into a Facilities and Environmental Engineering major.

Texas Maritime keeps a continuing focus on the coastal and inland waters industries in the region, especially in regards to issues related to safety of navigation and/or the carriage of hazardous materials. There have been "some preliminary discussions with companies in the field, and they have been receptive to the concept of a degree program that would prepare people for service on board ship as well as in management," said Rear Adm. William T. McMullen, superintendent of Texas Maritime Academy (Texas A&M University at Galveston). "One initiative underway," he said, "...[would] merge the Department of Marine Transportation and the Department of Marine Engineering Technology into one administrative academic unit. This reflects the general blurring of the traditional lines of responsibility that have divided the deck and engine departments. ... This drawing together of the work force is an important element in ... [an era] of smaller crews."

The past decade has seen many changes in the USMMA curricula, beginning with the Ship's Officer curriculum--now Marine Operations and Technology--which is designed to produce a deck officer with enough engineering knowledge to stand watch aboard the newer vessels now in service. Beginning in 1996 a major in Marine Engineering and Shipyard Management has also been offered, and the 1998­1999 school year saw the introduction of a new Intermodal Transportation major (see Sea Power, May 1998). USMMA also changed over to a trimester system in 1998 from its quarter system. "Faculty now have more time to teach a course, and students more time to learn," Stewart said. He pointed out that the school's Continuing Education program also has established a Center for Global Logistics and Transportation and a Center for Executive Management Training.

At SUNY in the past five years, Brown said, "increased regulations affecting tug and barge operations have led to the establishment of a new associates degree program in Marine Technology and Small Vessel Operations aimed at people entering the towing industry. The masters degree program in Transportation Management has been refined ... to ensure that graduates can succeed as ship owners as well as operators." SUNY also is working on strengthening its curriculum, he said, by "incorporating the STCW'95 requirements into the professional curriculum ... of a new program in International Business, Trade, and Commerce."

STCW--Students And Mariners Benefit

The United States is party to the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, as amended in 1995 (STCW'95). The STCW'95 Convention established common agreements at the international level and set international standards for the training and certification of, and watchkeeping requirements for, seafarers. All mariners (deck and engine) employed on oceangoing vessels will be required to hold a valid STCW'95 certificate after 1 February 2002. To obtain an unrestricted STCW'95 certificate, mariners must present to the U.S. Coast Guard the following:

• a valid U.S. Coast Guard license (must be current);
• an STCW Basic Safety Training course certificate showing completion of course (must be obtained within five years of application for STCW'95 certification);
• a course certificate in advanced firefighting; and
• a course certificate for radar observer unlimited, automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA), global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS), and bridge resource management [deck only].

Like their foreign counterparts, the seven U.S. maritime academies have had to adapt and upgrade their curricula to provide graduates with courses appropriate to modern times. All seven academies already have received conditional approval from a joint MARAD/U.S. Coast Guard Review Committee. Final approval is subject to visits, expected to begin in 2000, of the Review Committee Audit Team. In addition, new requirements prompted an evaluation of equipment, facilities, and continuing education programs.

In order to satisfy the requirements imposed by IMO/STCW'95, Texas changed or introduced 11 courses, and has lengthened its training cruises slightly. "It is an extremely resource-intensive project," said McMullen. Rear Adm. John G. Tanner, superintendent of GLMA, said that "the implementation of STCW federal mandates will cause our programs to be more expensive to maintain." His own future plans for GLMA, he said, include efforts to ensure that increased federal funding will be available to help implement the changes needed.

The training provided by SUNY Maritime for both licensed and unlicensed mariners includes courses on the required list for certification and a number of others, such as tanker operations. "Instruction includes the use of simulators as well as classroom and afloat training," Brown emphasized.

Discussing the need for continuing education for those who already hold licenses, Tyler said that Maine Maritime offers tanker safety, person in charge (PIC), and shipboard medicine courses, among others related to STCW. USMMA's continuing education program also has seen dramatic increases in its course offerings to more than 100 now from just a dozen or so a few years ago. The Continuing Education Division of Massachusetts Maritime, Bresnahan pointed out "conducts evening, weekend, and summer training of professional mariners to take advantage of available simulators and professional faculty when they are not in demand by undergrads."

GLMA's size limits what it can offer current mariners but it does provide ARPA radar training. Obtaining state-of-the-art simulators and updating the school's equipment both are high on GLMA's priority list. The school "recently invested $100,000 in new Automatic Radar Plotting Aids and now has five units in its lab," Tanner said. New ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display Information System) technology was also added recently. GLMA's shiphandling simulator, which already had been programmed with software simulating the entire St. Mary's River, is now being programmed with software simulating the Detroit River. Plans also are underway to replace the school's 20-year-old electric laboratory equipment.

For the first time since its move to Vallejo in the early 1940s, CMA is beginning new construction. Ground was broken for a new permanent lab building in 1997; completion is scheduled later this year.

To prepare tomorrow's mariners for the challenges of the 21st century, Massachusetts Maritime is making a multimillion-dollar investment in simulators, "including GMDSS, oil spill, slow-speed diesel, radar, liquid-cargo loading, and full visual bridge simulators to bring the latest technology into the classroom," according to Bresnahan. One of the most significant changes to occur at SUNY in the past five years, Brown said, was "the inauguration of an Oil Spill Response Simulator and Training Facility in conjunction with the U.S. Coast Guard to provide training in responding to a variety of simulated accidents for both government and commercial organizations."

"A striking new reliance on advanced technology as essential training tools" also has changed Maine Maritime, Tyler said. Maine has funded several advances in simulators, and is now further expanding its technology boundaries by becoming the first maritime academy to require members of its next incoming class to own their own laptop computers.

Different Training Philosophies

Traditionally, the maritime academies have used a regiment or corps system to train students for officer positions. Intermodalism is now changing the industry radically, though, and smaller crew-sizes are changing not only the roles of officers aboard ship but also their educational requirements. At least two questions are relevant, therefore: Do the old methods still work? What makes a leader and how is one trained? The answers to those questions (provided by Bresnahan, Aspland, and McMullen) suggest that in the 21st century a successful maritime leader will be a person who, among other things:

• knows his/her job;
• knows and values his/her people;
• can choose the right people for the right jobs--and at the right time;
• possesses a strong character;
• has an ambitious, but realistic, vision of the future;
• possesses the communication skills needed to communicate with everyone at every level in the chain of command;
• is blessed with considerable interpersonal skills;
• recognizes the strengths and weaknesses of individuals in realistic ways and can provide the training or experience needed to fill in whatever gaps might exist;
• welcomes the remark "But, sir ..." and encourages his/her people to be candid and forthright in their opinions and recommendations;
• does not see himself or herself as the only source of accurate information in understanding any issue; and
• keeps his/her eyes on the target--but continues to "survey the terrain" constantly.

The answer to the question of "how" leaders should be trained is not so uniform. Aspland said, for example, that "being a leader and practicing leadership are two different concepts. [Because] leadership/professionalism is perhaps the most important and the most difficult to engender, the first priority is to develop and implement programs to ensure this standard in the careers of graduates."

GLMA "has never been a strict military regimental school," according to Tanner. GLMA cadets "are required to meet their academic responsibilities," he said, and to demonstrate the self-discipline, leadership, and ship's officer qualities required to exercise good seamanship and good engineering practices. Tanner also said that he sees GLMA "moving towards modern corporate-style leadership techniques."

Maine midshipmen are seeing a similar trend during their four years. "Smaller and better educated crews, and more technology enhancements aboard ships, require today's leaders to be managers and teambuilders," Tyler said. "... Sophomores are introduced to administration and management theory; juniors are prepared to assume command of the regiment; and seniors examine their impending roles as professionals in the American economy and the Merchant Marine."

"Leadership from the middle of the organization outward keeps the leader in touch with more people, more closely," McMullen said. "It's the difference between 'follow me' and 'come with me.'" He personally tends to "favor corporate-style leadership as opposed to a rigid military model," he added. "The Merchant Marine is not a military organization. At the same time, the structure of the Corps of Cadets is useful in accelerating personal development." The changes at Texas Maritime have not gone unnoticed on the other Texas A&M campuses, where Cadets make up only 19 percent of the entire student body but--as McMullen told guests at the 9 March National Council of Maritime Academy Alumni Associations conference--hold one-third of the seats in the student-elected Student Senate.

Other academies adhere to the traditional regiment/corps methods. "With over a century of tradition and experience," Bresnahan pointed out, Massachusetts Maritime "has turned out thousands of leaders--captains of ships and industry. I believe that corporate-style leadership techniques are moving toward the academy methods of instruction," he said. "... The lessons of leadership can be taught, but to be learned, they must be practiced."

Aspland's commercial background has greatly influenced his personal goals for CMA. His beliefs are similar to those of Bresnahan--a leader cannot truly be trained in an academic atmosphere--but an education in leadership can be provided. The academy experience provides many opportunities for students to understand, and practice, leadership and related skills. Requiring students to go to sea and work together "certainly encourages--even requires--some of these skills." (Even CMA students who choose a major that does not require a Coast Guard license are required to spend time at sea aboard the school's training ship, the T.S. Golden Bear III.)

The regiment/corps training system, according to Aspland, "cannot and will not on its own provide leadership skills ... [but it does] provide a structure within which various techniques can be applied. Corporations are now attempting teamwork approaches. In that respect, the [corps/regiment] program is very strong and can be used as a model. We must continue to work with a variety of models to provide leadership education."

"There is no substitute for hands-on experience," SUNY's Brown added, "... [in which] the prospective leader assumes responsibilities that can be fulfilled only through effectively leading others. ... The cadet regimental system and the organization aboard the training ships are the best leadership laboratories available.

"[SUNY] also stresses," he continued, "that the students will be managers and team leaders, expected to get the most out of the people under their supervision. This is true both aboard ship and ... ashore. ... Positive leadership and motivational techniques are equally important."

Stewart told alumni and guests at a 10 September 1998 luncheon of the Kings Point Club of Washington, D.C., that there are "four components for leadership development:

(1) academic--ensuring a solid and relevant education;

(2) regimental--promoting self-discipline, honor, ethics, and decision-making;

(3) physical--fostering an appreciation of competition, teamwork, and physical fitness; and

(4) sea training--providing experiences not only in real-life vessel operations, but also in honing ... [a leader's] interpersonal skills."

Although new to USMMA, Stewart stands by the academy's traditional approach to leadership. "When students arrive, they learn 'followship.' That is, following instructions and working as a team." By the time midshipmen are juniors and seniors they fill leadership positions within the regiment. "They may make mistakes, but they learn through experience, which helps build their confidence. [The regiment approach] is supplemented with seminars and other exercises in leadership. The professional record of graduates demonstrates that the leadership program is successful."

Goals and Future Plans

When asked about their goals for their respective schools, the maritime superintendents and presidents gave similar answers. The education of current students is, of course, the first goal--as evident by the ongoing efforts to meet STCW'95 requirements. The second goal is to educate not only their respective regions but the nation as a whole about the maritime industry and its importance to the American economy and to U.S. national defense. Tyler of Maine Maritime identified a specific need to educate the general public about "the breadth of employment opportunities within the maritime community, a community much broader than the traditional blue water fleet--e.g., tugs and barges, Great Lakes, offshore oil industry, the inland waterways system, etc."

Another goal, he said, is "to convince our fellow citizens as to the significance of a strong merchant and naval fleet to the economic and strategic security of our country."

The resurgence of the oil industry in the Gulf region and the long-term prospects for employment opportunities there have led McMullen to consider how Texas Maritime will prepare its students and educate the region's citizens about the major changes, and challenges, just over the horizon. "It will be necessary to support [deepwater] fields over much greater distances and to transport the crude to land by ship. In the long term, it is expected that this will create important opportunities for graduates ... as will the ship/rig/barge repair and construction business in the region. There are opportunities to support this industry through the marine engineering curriculum."

McMullen's third goal looks closer to home and focuses on facility and program improvements. Texas Maritime is involved, with the other campuses of Texas A&M, in "a major strategic planning process which will focus their collective energies to make the campus even better. ... The vision is to create a Woods Hole or Scripps Institution type of center in Galveston."

Aspland examined CMA's future role in the Pacific region. He said he wants CMA to become more closely involved in academic and applied research. "Faculty and students can greatly enhance their educational experience and meet larger social needs through an outstanding applied research program," he said. He also envisions "a Pacific Area Maritime Safety Center which would provide a facility and experts to assist the Pacific Rim area in maritime safety."

Obtaining the funding necessary to implement the ambitious changes projected is a goal shared by all seven maritime academies. For example, to ensure that Maine Maritime has the "resources to keep up with technology," Tyler said, "while still providing an education that is within the means of a constituency which historically has been the first generation of a family to go on to college," will require "increased federal and state support, as well as private giving from alumni and friends [of Maine Maritime]." Obtaining that funding "will be a major focus for the foreseeable future," he said.

State Maritime Day on Capitol Hill

The 3rd annual State Maritime Day on Capitol Hill was celebrated this year on 10 March, and gave the superintendents and presidents the opportunity to educate their state delegations and other members of the House and Senate, and their staffs, about the U.S.-flag Merchant Marine and the role the academies play in supplying licensed mariners. The need for continued and increased funding support was the order of the day. McMullen said that he intends to urge "continued support of the programs in principle and of the concept that, in general, the Merchant Marine remains America's fourth arm of national defense and that the health of the industry is critical to national interests."

Congress needs to recognize, Brown said, "that the state maritime academies represent a model of state and federal cost-sharing in meeting the nation's need for officers for the American-flag merchant fleet and other elements of the maritime industry."

Bresnahan agreed with Brown, stating that there is a need to understand that maritime graduates "are immediately productive, skilled contributors to American society and represent a part of the trained personnel needed for a secure national defense. It's all about seapower, and without Americans willing and able to project that power around the world the country's future would not be so bright."

Tyler said he wants members of Congress to recognize that the share of the MARAD budget allocated to the state academies "has remained the same for the past 12 years. ... In order to ensure that the ships remain technically up to date and fit for sea service, a substantial increase in federal support is necessary," he said. It is important to recognize, he continued, that state academies "provide the most cost-effective source of licensed deck and engineering officers to man [U.S.] merchant ships to support a strong economy, and ensure adequate sealift capabilities in times of national and international crisis."

Aspland and Tanner both looked closer to home. In addition to seeking continued MARAD support for the training ships, Aspland urged Congress to continue the SIP (student incentive program). Hart reported that approximately 90 percent of 1998 graduates who received financial support from MARAD through SIP obtained employment in the maritime industry--or began service on active duty (in the Navy or one of the nation's other armed services)--illustrating the high rate of return for such investment. Tanner sees federal support as one means to continue to prepare for tomorrow. He emphasized to members of the House, Senate, and staff the importance of the maritime transportation industry on the Great Lakes, and provided information on the new GLMA curriculum "which will better prepare graduates to solve [maritime] problems of the next millennium."

Stewart concurred with the state superintendents and presidents on the importance of educating members of Congress. "I want the members ... whom I meet to know that ... [USMMA] is producing well-educated and top-quality graduates who are meeting the needs of the nation. If I can accomplish this, then I have done my job."

It was Bresnahan who perhaps best summarized the sentiments of the leaders of the nation's maritime academies: "Although I fear that many Americans have forgotten Alfred Thayer Mahan's writings that asserted seapower in the form of a strong Merchant Marine and a Navy to protect seaborne commerce is critical to the country's future, the federal and state maritime academies continue to believe in the vision of the United States as a powerful ocean nation."

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